Abstract/Introduction
Offshore wind energy is a globally emerging renewable energy source. In the United States, there are only a couple existing farms with many more planned on the Atlantic Coast (Horwath, 2022). It is also currently in the planning stages on the Pacific Coast, where the first ever offshore wind lease sale on the West Coast occurred in December, 2022 (Flaccus, 2022). Nationally, the offshore wind industry is currently enjoying strong support from the Biden Administration, with plans to develop 30GW of offshore wind by 2030 (Horwath, 2022).
This document seeks to explore the current state of offshore wind development in the United States with an emphasis on proposed West Coast projects. After a background of offshore wind globally and nationally, it briefly covers the permitting and regulatory processes, then upcoming West Coast projects. Finally, an overview of the effects and difficulties associated with offshore wind will help readers understand the nuances of this new and rapidly developing energy source.
Background
The term offshore is understood somewhat differently in the context of renewable energy than in other maritime contexts. An offshore wind farm refers to any wind energy farm over water, including within the Great Lakes. Many are in shallow water, fairly close to shore. The wind powers anchored or floating wind turbines that generate electricity, which is then transmitted to customers. This report focuses on floating rather than anchored offshore wind platforms, which is a new and rising technology, especially in the United States.
There are multiple reasons why offshore wind energy is increasing globally. Commonly, winds are more powerful and regular further offshore compared to overland (Wang et al, 2020). Because the topography of the ocean is essentially flat, the wind is able to flow without interruptions seen over lands with topographic variety. The regularity and strength of winds over large bodies of water translates to a more consistent energy source with more total energy to be harvested by developers.
In addition to recognizing this energy potential, there is high energy demand worldwide with a shifting emphasis towards renewables. Concerns about climate change are leading some to attempt to move away from gas, oil, and coal for energy production. In some areas, such as central California, offshore wind is expected to pair well with solar installations in order to better allow a shift away from fossil fuels (Wang et al, 2020). Because wind speeds in that area follow a pattern of being higher in the evening when solar capacity is lower, it is expected that an offshore wind farm in the area will complement energy needs in the area between these two renewable sources.
As can be imagined, there are many challenges to building and maintaining offshore wind farms. Some of the technologies which have made these large scale projects feasible in recent years have come from the onshore wind industry. The oil and gas industry has also played a large part in engineering breakthroughs via their offshore oil platforms (Díaz and Soares, 2020). Falling costs and better technologies for floating platforms play a role in the current rise of floating offshore wind projects in recent years. However, wind is still expensive, particularly in up front costs such as construction. Overall, investment is about 50% more expensive than normal onshore wind (Díaz and Soares, 2020).
Globally, offshore wind is more prevalent than in the United States, but it is also new and growing. European countries and China lead the offshore wind market, with the United States being the only country in the Americas with any offshore wind (Díaz and Soares, 2020). The world’s first offshore wind project was only installed in 1991 in Denmark. The sector is rapidly increasing, with many studies on the subject coming from the North Sea. As of 2020, there were 112 offshore wind farms currently operational, with an additional 712 projects in development and 53 projects in pre-development or under construction worldwide (Díaz and Soares, 2020). In 2020, the Walney Extension in the Irish Sea was the world’s largest offshore wind farm, and produced electricity for over half a million homes. At 659MW this has since been exceeded by more than five other projects.
Offshore wind development in the United States is on a much smaller scale. As of 2020, there was only a single operating commercial offshore wind farm. This was the Block Island farm in Rhode Island, which began operation only in 2016 (Wang et al, 2020). Block Island is in state waters, with only a 30MW capacity. Also currently operating is a second 12 MW wind farm that is only a pilot project, with the full farm at 2,640MW expected to be completed in 2026. Called Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind, this farm was the first project in Federal waters, as Block Island was close enough to shore to be in State waters.
The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), approved two commercial-scale offshore projects in Federal waters in 2022, Vineyard Wind 1 in Massachusetts and Southfork in New York (Horwath, 2022). There are plans to review 16 more construction and operation plans by 2025. Many consider the Vineyard Winds project in Massachusetts to be the first ‘major’ offshore wind project in the United States (Frangoul, 2021). Construction began in May of 2021, and it will have an 800MW capacity, much larger than Block Island. To date, BOEM has held 10 competitive lease sales and issued 27 active commercial wind leases in the Atlantic Ocean from Massachusetts to North Carolina (Department of the Interior, 2022).
The depth profile offshore from the Pacific Coast necessitates floating platforms if wind energy is to be harnessed overwater (See Figure 1). This is one reason why development has been focused in the Atlantic, where the turbines are not floating but directly attached to the comparatively shallow coastal seafloor. The Pacific Coast is characterized by a steep grade dropping off fairly close to shore. From a recent report by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 60 meters is the upper limit for fixed-bottom systems which means that all offshore wind on the West Coast must be floating (Lopez et al, 2022). The maximum depth that is currently considered for offshore wind leasing areas is ~1,300 meters. They note that this is a recent increase from the 1,000 meter depth of a previous guideline, and that this limit may be relaxed in the future with further technological advances. The necessity for floating platforms is well understood by the executive branch who are pushing for offshore wind. A White House briefing stated that “deep-water areas that require floating platforms are home to two-thirds of America’s offshore wind energy potential” (The White House, 2022). President Biden is eager to capture that energy potential and has been aggressively pushing for development. Offshore wind in the rest of the world as well as offshore oil platforms at home and abroad continue to advance the field of offshore infrastructure and make offshore wind more viable and affordable.
Figure 1.
Bathymetric map of offshore Washington.
Note: Public Domain. From USGS Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center, August 14, 2020. https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/bathymetric-map-offshore-washington
Regulatory Processes and Permitting
The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is housed within the United States Department of the Interior (DOI), and is responsible for choosing locations of wind farms and leasing the ocean floor for energy developers use. In 2005, the United States Congress passed the Energy Policy Act (EPAct) , which amended the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) (Campbell, 2011). Before this, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was in charge of leasing and permitting for offshore wind energy. In 2009 the DOI announced the final regulations for the Outer Continental Shelf Renewable Energy Program (Hare et al, 2022). This announcement is essentially how BOEM began. The announcement amended OCSLA in section 388(a). The OCSLA was written with the purpose of managing offshore oil development, and the amendment was needed to authorize the management of alternative energy such as wind and wave energy as well.
Although relatively new, BOEM has a permitting process in place for the establishment of new offshore wind farms (Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2016). A simplified view of the process is that BOEM reaches out to developers for their interest, then establishes call areas. After this, the first round of NEPA/Environmental Reviews takes place. Next an auction occurs and the developers who win create a Site Assessment Plan (SAP). If the SAP is approved by BOEM, further site assessments and surveys are completed, and the developers submit a Construction and Operations Plan (COP). With this new information, BOEM conducts a second round of NEPA/Environmental Reviews. Finally, if the COP is approved, the developer continues to installation. BOEM is to reach out to stakeholders and the scientific community during both stages of NEPA/Environmental Reviews.
Upcoming Pacific Coast Projects
The State of California is a leading figure in the effort to move away from fossil fuels. In 2022, the California Energy Commission released its officials goals of 2,000-5,000 megawatts (MW) of offshore wind by 2030 and 25,000 MW by 2045 (California Energy Commission, 2022). In the legislation, California has goals to provide 60% of its electricity from any renewables by 2030 with SB-100, California Renewables Portfolio Standard Program, The 100 Percent Clean Energy Act of 2018 (Wang et al, 2020). Currently, the State of California has two leasing areas approved, the Humboldt Wind Energy Area (WEA) and the Morro Bay WEA (See Figure 2). The Port of Humboldt Bay is currently increasing capacity in preparation for this project (Shields, 2022).
Figure 2.
Overview Map of the California Final Lease Areas
Note: From BOEM's website: https://www.boem.gov/ renewable-energy/ state-activities/ california.
The first ever West Coast Offshore Wind Proposed Sale Notice took place Dec. 6, 2022. (Department of the Interior, 2022). This sale involved five total lease areas, two in the Humboldt Bay WEA and three in the Morro Bay WEA (See Figure 2). Some estimates suggest that if all lease areas are fully built out, the power production could approach a quarter of the State’s annual electrical energy production (Wang et all, 2020). The winning bids came from companies based in Norway, Denmark, Germany, a French and Portuguese joint venture, and one winning bid went to an American company (Flaccus, 2022). This auction was the first ever for projects using floating wind turbines in the United States. In total the auction netted $747 million in bids (Flaccus, 2022).
The Morro Bay project is planning to use the existing Diablo Canyon Power Plant to plug into the grid. Local Indigenous people including the Chairwoman of the Northern Chumash Tribal Council have voiced concerns about impacts of onshore landings and infrastructure built on sacred sites and Indigenous lands (Walker, 2022). In addition to these concerns specific to her people, she points out that green energy projects often continue unfair and exploitative practices that do not benefit the communities which are most impacted by them. While many recognize how important it is to address climate change, there are calls for green energy projects to include Indigenous voices in planning and give them a meaningful seat at the table during important decision making phases.
The status in Oregon is a bit behind that of the State of California. There are currently two call areas defined, one near Coos Bay, and one near Brookings. This is a fairly early on stage of the permitting process, but the port at Coos Bay is updating infrastructure to support future development (Shields, 2022). No dates have been set for auctions, nor leases granted yet.
The status in Washington is again, a step behind Oregon. Development company ‘Trident Winds' submitted an unsolicited lease request for a wind farm off the Washington Coast to BOEM on March 28, 2022. Located off the coast of Washington near Grays Harbor, this would be a 2,000MW project (see Figure 3). This location is immediately south of the southern border of the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Trident Winds is the same company working on the proposed Morro Bay Project in California (Turner, 2022). Again, local Indigenous people have already voiced concerns about proposed offshore winds projects. In particular, Makah Fisheries has raised concerns about effects via their involvement with the Pacific Fishery Management Council and the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council (Sanctuary Advisory Council, 2023).
Figure 3.
Proposed Floating Offshore Wind Lease Area
Note: Mark Nowlin, with sources ESRI, Trident Winds, Herrera. From The Seattle Times (Turner, 2022). https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/seattle-developer- pushes-for-was-first-floating-offshore-wind-farm-off-olympic-peninsula/
Transmission and Infrastructure
There are currently a variety of concerns regarding infrastructure, transmission, and effects on wildlife from offshore wind farms. While many of the East Coast wind farms can be connected directly to a grid or power station, some of the proposed West Coast wind farms lack the necessary onshore infrastructure required to use the electricity (Ortega et al, 2020). In particular, projects proposed in Northern California do not have infrastructure to transmit the energy from the more sparsely populated Humboldt County down to major population and industrial areas in central and Southern California. This same concern applies to the southern Oregon farms and the potential Washington State project. These concerns of transmission from the farms to the customer is a problem somewhat unique to the American market, with many European projects having transmission handled by the government (Horwath, 2022). At the moment, this issue is supposed to be handled by the developers in the United States.
In addition to solving the problem of how to get the produced power to customers, there is also a lack of infrastructure to support the construction phase of offshore wind projects on many West Coast ports. The wind projects require massive onshore support at the ports. Humboldt County in California and Coos Bay in Oregon are both currently updating ports in order to fully support offshore wind energy projects (Shields, 2022). These expansions are expected to create jobs and better port infrastructure which could arguably benefit local communities. But again, concerns have been voiced by Indigenous peoples about the effect of this increase in construction at important coastal sites (Walker, 2022).
Many components for offshore wind are currently European made. While this could mean that bottlenecks may be experienced as demand rises with upcoming projects, it is also expected to create American jobs (Schuler, 2022). In particular, maritime jobs to construct and maintain the farms will have to be Jones Act compliant, which requires that vessels which transport between U.S. ports be built and registered in the United States, and crewed by American workers. This a positive for the national ship building industry, however bottlenecks are expected in this aspect as well. Global demand is rising and shipbuilding is not a fast process. These projects are expected to create jobs at ports and at sea for American mariners (Schuler, 2022). But already we’ve seen with the first auctions in California that the majority of these projects are going to companies based outside of the United States (Flaccus, 2022).
Effects On Wildlife
The literature generally agrees that the greatest effects on marine wildlife occur during the construction phase, and decline during operation phases (Bergström et al, 2014), (Amaral et al, 2020), (Conservation Law Foundation, 2019). Pile driving has been identified as causing “extreme avoidance behavior” in marine mammals (Bergström et al, 2014). This construction activity is necessary for monopoly and jacketing types of wind platform anchoring systems. However, dredging is often necessary for gravity type foundations. Dredging causes high impact via sediment dispersal as well as sometimes causing direct mortality of marine organisms. Findings from a generalized impact assessment stressed that construction activities should be carefully planned both in a spatial and temporal scale in order to reduce negative effects on wildlife. There is also concern that decommissioning phases could involve similar levels of disruption to marine life (Amaral et al, 2020). These farms are not designed nor expected to last forever.
In the United States, the Vineyard Wind project agreed to not pile drive from January 1 to April 30 to protect critically endangered North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) (Conservation Law Foundation, 2019). This project is offshore of Massachusetts and began construction in 2021 (Anmar, 2021). There is an ongoing mortality event of large whales on the Atlantic coast currently (mid 2023). NOAA Fisheries does not currently believe there is any evidence to connect the current mortality event with offshore wind (NOAA 2023). However, they state “vessel strikes and entanglement in fishing gear are the greatest human threats to large whales”. This is a concern worth considering as offshore wind can be expected to increase vessel traffic.
As with onshore wind, the effects on birds are a high profile environmental concern with offshore wind farms. The effects can be generally characterized in two ways- avoidance of the area and collision with the turbines. Different species of birds have been seen to show avoidance of the entire wind farm area, as well as attraction to wind farms (Kelsey et al, 2018). When considering collision, of course avoidance of the wind farms seems like a positive behavioral change, however this is effectively a loss of habitat for foraging and resting. Additionally, change in flight patterns can be energetically expensive for birds commuting from nesting/roosting areas to feeding grounds. A study of sea ducks in New England showed that White-winged Scoters (Melanitta deglandi) show high site fidelity to their overwintering areas, meaning they return to the same patch of ocean year after year (Meattey et al, 2019). White-winged Scoters are among a group of sea ducks (Mergini) which are declining at a concerning rate in North America. They are just one example of many that may be negatively affected by wind farms encroaching on habitat patches. On the other hand, it is as yet unclear how attraction to wind farm areas will affect seabirds, outside of it causing them to be at higher risk of collision with turbines.
Collision is the largest threat to species that spend time flying at rotor sweep zone height, and which do not avoid the area. Jaegers, pelicans, gulls, and terns spend large amounts of time at this risky height, in comparison for example, to species in the family Alcidae which fly fast and low over the water (Kelsey et al, 2018)(See Figure 4). Alcids and loons (Gavia) have been recorded at lower densities than expected in studies around offshore wind farms in the North Sea. Again, while these birds may be avoiding increased collision rates, it is more difficult to quantify the energetic cost of flying potentially farther or missing out on a feeding or resting area. Failing to avoid the entire area, and flying at the riskiest heights lead to higher collision likelihood.
Figure 4.
Arctic terns and a wind turbine at the Eider Barrage in Germany.
Note: Franke, D.I., (2007) Arctic terns and a wind turbine at the Eider Barrage in Germany. Creative Commons Copyright CC BY-SA 2.0 de. Accessed https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_wind_power#/media/File:Eidersperrw_Sterna_paradisaea_colony.jpg
A consideration of the level of vulnerability of individual species is important. Seabirds as taxa show high population vulnerability with several Endangered Species Act listed species living in proposed offshore wind areas. Marine birds are threatened by a wide range of factors and are considered to be some of the most threatened species of birds. They are at risk from fisheries through being caught as bycatch as well as competing for dwindling fish stocks. Further, they face habitat loss, pollution including from oil, and threats to their fragile breeding grounds. Thus they are important to consider when siting, designing, and permitting offshore wind projects.
NOAA Fisheries has been conducting scientific fisheries surveys in a standardized way for a long time, in some cases over 30 years. Construction and operation of offshore wind has been identified as interfering with this important tool for fisheries management on the East Coast, and a draft NOAA Fisheries and BOEM Federal Survey Mitigation Implementation Strategy Report was published in March of 2022 for public comment (Hare et al, 2022). NOAA Fisheries monitors ~450 fishery stocks and 165 threatened and endangered species. Long term, standardized monitoring of fish stocks is a critical part of sustainably managing fisheries, as well as playing a part in monitoring climate change and associated shifts in fisheries.
Outside of these primary concerns of siting, construction, and loss of habitat and scientific surveys, there are concerns about the effects of wind farms during their normal operation. While not as dramatic as pile driving, wind turbines do emit noise, including underwater noise. These noises are low but there is concern that this can cause behavioral reactions from some animals which are seen to avoid the areas of wind farms in normal operation (Amaral et al, 2020). While construction effects are agreed to be the highest risk due to noise and increased boat traffic, the environmental effects of wind farm operation should be examined seriously. Studies have found Harbor Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) to exhibit avoidance behaviors of offshore wind farms during operation (Bergström et al, 2014). The same concerns about habitat loss due to avoidance behavioral strategies discussed above for birds apply to marine mammals such as Harbor Porpoises as well. Additionally, there are electromagnetic fields documented around the farms as well as along the transmission cables. It is currently unclear exactly how fields these will effect fish, however many fish use electromagnetic signals to detect prey and to navigate (Bergström et al, 2014). There is concern that electromagnetic fields may cause developmental, physiological, and/or behavioral responses in some fish and invertebrates (Dannheim et al, 2020). In addition to potentially disturbing marine fauna which use electromagnetism to detect prey, there is also evidence that subsea power cables may cause attraction of commercially important Crustacea (Dannheim et al, 2020). This could have effects on marine Crustacea fisheries which are already experiencing dramatic declines in some areas. While these effects are unknown and of a lower severity than construction concern, with rapid ramping up of offshore wind around the world they are worth considering and studying in order to lessen any possible negative effects.
Developers and other supporters of offshore wind are often quick to note that there are also potential positive effects on wildlife from the construction of farms. In particular, due to their imminent decommissioning, some study has been done on the habitat creation of oil platforms. Off the coast of California, oil platforms have been shown to have high levels of secondary fish production (Claisse et al, 2014). This was shown to be primarily rockfish of the genus Sebastes. Additionally, in areas where bottom trawling currently occurs, benthic regeneration can be expected if wind farms disallow this type of industrial fishing.
One study of two species of seal in the North Sea found evidence of these marine mammals using them to forage (Russell et al, 2014). Figure 5 shows the grid-like pattern one seal’s tracker made over the course of visiting an active wind farm several times. This lends credence to the idea that sometimes these platforms are indeed acting as artificial reefs, creating habitat for fish and their associated predators. However, the authors of the study are sure to note that it is not clear whether these data represent an actual increase in prey or simply a concentration of prey at the wind turbines. Further, they note that it is unclear as yet how these novel behaviors will affect seal populations.
Figure 5.
Movie S1. Four of thirteen trips of a harbour seal to Sheringham Shoal. White points show structures including turbines and sub-stations. The seal's track is shown in red with the yellow pointer updating every half an hour of the track.
Note: Screenshot of video. (Russell et al, 2014).
The same wind which developers are eager to harness for energy production drives important upwelling in the California Current ecosystem. This upwelling sustains rich marine life and is a crucial element in the California Current. Few studies have been done on how commercial scale wind farms may affect important ocean processes like upwelling, but concerns exist. One study of a large wind farm in the North Sea found evidence that it was having an effect on downwelling/upwelling. (Jiménez et al, 2015). A recent article attempted to examine possible effects on the California Current for the two proposed large wind farms from a physical oceanography view (Raghukumar et al, 2023). The authors agree that the physics of the changes in wind speed and wind stress and other physical oceanographic processes are extremely complicated, but warrant further study in a location where upwelling is critically important to the entire food web. The key finding of the study was that offshore wind farms can reduce the wind stress at the surface level, and the projected projects in California could shift where upwelling occurs, while the overall net upwelling is projected to change little. Essentially, they find that it is possible that upwelling will decrease on the leeward side of the turbines, and increase on the windward side. Some studies have also shown that localized upwelling (right near the turbines) is increased during times where surrounding water in stratified (Floeter et al 2017)(Dannheim et al, 2020). In studies on the environmental impact of wind farms as early as 2011, researchers voiced concern about wind farms causing localized climate change due to wake effect and mixing of the layered air (Leung and Yang, 2011). These researchers called for further research in the area, and noted that while these environmental impacts seem negligible at the small scale, wind power is rapidly and exponentially expanding.
There are some positive social aspects of offshore wind as a renewable energy source. Due to their remote siting, some negative environmental and social impacts are not likely to be felt as much as onshore projects located near human housing or transportation corridors. In particular, the visual impact and noise impact to humans is hardly an issue at all for offshore projects, in contrast to onshore wind where this can be a hurdle for siting (Leung and Yang, 2011). Another positive social aspect is that the construction of the farms themselves as well as the upkeep and decommissioning are expected to create maritime job opportunities. They also do not create any radioactive waste, as nuclear power does. And of course, the main benefit is to source energy from renewable resources.
Conclusion
Offshore wind energy is coming to oceans around the world imminently and in a big way. These projects often enjoy support from most people concerned about climate change because wind energy is one of the ‘cleanest’ sources of renewable energy. However, they are built far away from the eyes of most people, with access likely to be difficult even to people who own boats. They threaten many marine species which are already facing dark futures with unimaginable hurdles due to climate change. These threats should be examined carefully. The known and unknown effects are about to be dramatically amplified as the scale of wind farms increases, and as they are built for the first time ever in the eastern Pacific.
As noted, there are serious concerns about the impact on climate from the construction of massive offshore infrastructure projects (Leung and Yang, 2011). It is crucial to understand these issues in order to correct for them early on before these massively expensive projects are complete. If the reason that offshore wind enjoys widespread support is because it is a good alternative to oil which people hope will slow the rate of climate change, the potential localized climate change effects of this technology must be understood before it is undertaken on a massive scale. This is an area of critical need for further investigation due to its potentially very wide ranging impact, especially in areas dependent on upwelling, such as the California Current ecosystem. Questions of physics and the effects of turbines on upwelling are complicated and difficult to model, however this oceanographic phenomenon is crucial to our entire marine food web across the entire Pacific coast.
A recent assessment of potential collision and displacement vulnerability of marine birds in the Pacific identified species which they felt could be a research priority (Kelsey et al, 2018). These species are considered to be highly vulnerable to population pressures already, as well as having a high degree of uncertainty regarding how offshore wind will affect them. Many highly vulnerable seabird species have small populations with large distributions which make them difficult to study. This lack of information makes management decisions difficult, but their small populations require that additional care be taken to maintain them. Offshore wind being far out of sight also means that monitoring their effects on marine wildlife will be that much more difficult. Research on effects and population monitoring should be high priority if these massive infrastructure projects are to be built in these sensitive animal’s homes.
Future research should also look into auditory and electrical effects of wind farm operation on fish and other marine life. While there is some understanding of their effects on marine birds and mammals, there is not a strong understanding of the effects of normal operation on electroreceptive organisms. Of great importance is to understand if floating wind turbines are truly creating more habitat and more fish, or if they are simply concentrating fish and thus acting as an ecological trap. This is a concern if it increases bird collision rates, or if the farms are attracting the fish which takes prey away from species who demonstrate avoidance behavior around wind farms. Fish use of wind farms could have a big affect on commercial and Indigenous fisheries if these farms act as fish aggregating devices which fisherman are not allowed to access. Often toted simply as a positive side effect, more research is needed to say with certainty whether these platforms are truly creating ‘new’ habitat, and if so, what are the positive and negative results of that on marine wildlife and human marine habitat use.
Finally, an important consideration in the future is to learn and apply lessons from studies of oil platforms and existing wind farms. Developers have been happy to apply structural engineering lessons, but they should be pushed to also incorporate design elements that make the most out of possible habitat creation for fish and other marine life. Diversity and amount of marine life has been shown to be markedly different on different types of oil platforms, and these lessons should be applied to offshore wind (Claisse et al, 2014). The attraction vs production debate is an important consideration; however if these artificial reefs are going to be built either way, assessing their potential use and impact as a reef is imperative. Additionally, efforts should be made to reduce collisions with birds. One study of onshore wind farms found that painting one blade black on wind turbines had a 70% annual fatality rate reduction compared to neighboring unpainted turbines (May et al, 2020). The greatest benefactor was raptors, but the painting significantly reduced collision risk for a range of taxa. While it was a small study, these and other possible mitigation factors need to be researched further and applied rapidly to mitigate this new threat to our marine birds. Thus far, it does not seem that the research coming out of these mitigation studies has been applied at any scale, and it is likely that significant public pressure will be necessary to force energy companies to apply lessons learned from scientific studies.
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